When and Why Jews Emigrated from Eastern Europe

Between the late 1800s and the early 1900s, millions of Jews left Eastern Europe. They packed what they could carry, said goodbye to family, and traveled across oceans to start new lives. This great movement of people changed Jewish history and shaped Jewish communities around the world.

To understand why this happened, we need to look at both when Jews left Eastern Europe and why they felt they had no choice.

Where Did Eastern European Jews Live?

Before emigrating, many Jews lived in areas that are now Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, Russia, Hungary, and Romania. These regions were part of large empires, such as the Russian Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Jewish families often lived in small towns called shtetls. Life was centered around family, religion, and community. While these towns had strong traditions, daily life was often hard.

When Did Jews Emigrate?

The largest wave of Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe took place between 1880 and 1924.

During this time:

• About 2.5 million Jews came to the United States
• Others moved to Canada, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, and Western Europe
• Some went to Ottoman-controlled Palestine

Smaller waves continued before and after these years, but this period saw the greatest number of people leaving.

Why Did Jews Leave Eastern Europe?

There was no single reason Jews emigrated. Most families left because of a mix of problems that made life unsafe or unbearable.

1. Violence and Pogroms

One of the biggest reasons Jews fled was violence. Pogroms were organized attacks on Jewish neighborhoods. Homes were burned, businesses destroyed, and people were injured or killed.

Pogroms increased in the Russian Empire after 1881. Jewish families lived in fear, knowing attacks could happen at any time.

2. Harsh Laws and Restrictions

In many countries, Jews faced strict laws that limited where they could live, work, or study.

For example:

• Jews were often forced to live in certain areas
• Many jobs were closed to Jewish workers
• Universities limited how many Jewish students they accepted

These laws made it very hard for families to improve their lives.

3. Poverty and Hunger

Life in Eastern Europe was difficult for many people, but Jews often faced extra challenges. Jobs were scarce, and many families struggled to afford food, rent, and clothing.

When farming failed or factories closed, Jewish workers were often the first to suffer.

4. Military Service

Young Jewish men were sometimes forced to serve long terms in the army. Service could last many years and often meant harsh treatment and pressure to give up Jewish traditions.

Many families sent their sons abroad to protect them from this future.

5. Hope for a Better Life

While life was difficult in Eastern Europe, stories from abroad offered hope. Letters from relatives in America spoke of jobs, freedom, and education.

The United States, in particular, promised:

• Religious freedom
• Better-paying jobs
• Education for children
• A chance to own property

For many families, this hope made the dangerous journey worthwhile.

The Journey Itself

Leaving was not easy. Families traveled by wagon, train, and ship. The trip could take weeks or months. Conditions on ships were crowded and uncomfortable, especially for those traveling in the lowest class.

Still, people endured the hardship because staying behind felt even more dangerous.

How Emigration Changed Jewish Life

Emigration reshaped Jewish communities forever. New neighborhoods formed in cities like New York, Chicago, Buenos Aires, and Toronto. Traditions were carried across oceans and adapted to new lands.

While many mourned what was left behind, emigrants built new lives filled with opportunity and hope.

A Story of Survival

Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe was not just about leaving home. It was about survival, safety, and the dream of a better future for the next generation.

For millions of families today, this journey explains how their ancestors came to live where they do—and why their stories matter.

Start uncovering your family’s story with confidence—this getting started guide shows you exactly where to begin and what to do next.

Preserve Jewish Heritage — Join and Support Our Mission

As technology advances, so does our ability to trace Jewish ancestry across generations and continents. Our nonprofit Jewish genealogy organization in Colorado is dedicated to helping individuals explore, document, and preserve their family stories — stories that might otherwise be lost.

Your membership and donations make this work possible. Together, we can connect families, honor our ancestors, and strengthen our shared heritage.

Join us today or make a tax-deductible contribution to help continue this vital mission of Jewish genealogical discovery.

What Is Pedigree Collapse and How Does It Affect Jewish DNA Results?

If you’ve taken a DNA test and have Jewish ancestry, you may have noticed something strange. You might see thousands of distant cousins, very few close ones, and relationships that don’t seem to make sense. This can feel confusing at first, but there is a clear reason for it.

One of the biggest reasons is something called pedigree collapse.

What Is Pedigree Collapse?

Pedigree collapse happens when the same ancestors appear more than once in your family tree.

Normally, your family tree spreads out like a big fan. You have two parents, four grandparents, eight great-grandparents, and so on. But if relatives marry other relatives (usually distant cousins), the tree stops spreading as wide. Instead, it starts folding back in on itself.

This does not mean close relatives marrying each other in recent times. In most cases, it happened many generations ago, often without anyone realizing it.

Why Pedigree Collapse Is Common in Jewish Families

Pedigree collapse exists in all populations, but it is especially common in Jewish ancestry because of history.

For hundreds of years, Jewish communities were often:

• Small in size
• Living in the same towns or regions
• Encouraged or required to marry within the community
• Limited in where they could live or move

Because of this, many Jewish families married other Jewish families from the same area over and over again. Over time, the same ancestors appear multiple times in the family tree.

This happened among Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jews, even though they lived in different parts of the world.

How Pedigree Collapse Shows Up in Jewish DNA Results

Pedigree collapse doesn’t break your DNA test, but it does change how the results look.

1. A Huge Number of Distant Cousins

Many Jewish testers see thousands — sometimes tens of thousands — of matches labeled as 4th to 6th cousins. This happens because many people share the same ancestors in multiple ways.

You are not related to all these people closely, but you share small pieces of DNA because your family lines crossed many times in the past.

2. Cousin Labels That Feel Wrong

DNA testing companies use computer programs to guess relationships. These programs assume that family trees do not overlap very much.

Jewish family trees often overlap a lot.

That means a match labeled as a “4th cousin” could really be:

• A more distant cousin related in two or three ways
• Connected through both sides of your family
• Sharing DNA from several shared ancestors

3. Higher Shared DNA Than Expected

You may share slightly more DNA with distant cousins than people from non-endogamous backgrounds. This is normal for Jewish DNA and is a direct result of pedigree collapse.

4. Fewer Unique Ancestors

On paper, you should have thousands of different ancestors going back 10 or 12 generations. In real Jewish family trees, many of those spots are filled by the same people.

This does not mean you have “less ancestry.” It means your ancestry is more closely connected.

Pedigree Collapse vs. Endogamy

These two ideas are related but not the same.

• Endogamy means marrying within a group
• Pedigree collapse is what happens to the family tree after generations of endogamy

Endogamy is the cause. Pedigree collapse is the result.

Is Pedigree Collapse a Bad Thing?

No. Pedigree collapse is a normal part of Jewish history.

It does not mean there is anything wrong with your DNA, your health, or your family. Many other long-standing communities around the world show the same pattern.

What This Means for Jewish Genealogy

If you are researching Jewish ancestors, pedigree collapse means:

• DNA is helpful, but not always exact
• Paper records are very important
• One DNA match may connect in more than one way
• Patience is key

Your DNA is not confusing or broken. It reflects centuries of shared history, close communities, and survival across generations.

Start uncovering your family’s story with confidence—this getting started guide shows you exactly where to begin and what to do next.

Preserve Jewish Heritage — Join and Support Our Mission

As technology advances, so does our ability to trace Jewish ancestry across generations and continents. Our nonprofit Jewish genealogy organization in Colorado is dedicated to helping individuals explore, document, and preserve their family stories — stories that might otherwise be lost.

Your membership and donations make this work possible. Together, we can connect families, honor our ancestors, and strengthen our shared heritage.

Join us today or make a tax-deductible contribution to help continue this vital mission of Jewish genealogical discovery.

What is Endogamy and how does it affect Jewish DNA results and research.

If you’ve taken a DNA test and have Jewish ancestry, you may have opened your results and immediately felt overwhelmed. Thousands of matches. Endless fourth to sixth cousins. Relationship estimates that don’t seem to line up with what you know about your family. This experience is incredibly common for people with Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi roots, and the reason behind it is something called endogamy.

Endogamy refers to the practice of marrying within a defined community over many generations. For Jewish populations, this was shaped by religion, geography, cultural tradition, and often by outside restrictions that limited where Jews could live and whom they could marry. Over centuries, this created genetic patterns that are still visible in DNA results today.

Ashkenazi DNA and Endogamy

Endogamy is most visible in Ashkenazi DNA results. Ashkenazi Jews largely descended from relatively small communities in Central and Eastern Europe that remained interconnected for hundreds of years. Because Jewish families often lived in the same towns for generations and married within the community, many modern Ashkenazi Jews share the same ancestors multiple times.

This is why Ashkenazi DNA test-takers frequently see an unusually high number of matches. It’s not uncommon to have tens of thousands of genetic cousins, most labeled as fourth to sixth cousins. These matches exist because many people share DNA from several distant ancestors rather than one recent one.

As a result, relationship predictions in Ashkenazi DNA are often inflated. A match estimated as a second cousin may actually be a third or fourth cousin connected through multiple ancestral lines. Family trees may loop back on themselves, with the same surnames and towns appearing repeatedly on both sides of the family.

Sephardic DNA and Endogamy

Sephardic Jewish DNA results also reflect endogamy, though in a different pattern. After the expulsion from Spain and Portugal in the late 15th century, Sephardic Jews resettled throughout North Africa, the Ottoman Empire, Southern Europe, and parts of the Middle East. These communities remained strongly connected through trade, culture, and religious networks.

Sephardic endogamy often occurred across wide geographic areas rather than within a single town. Families from different ports and cities intermarried, but still largely within the Sephardic Jewish world. This creates DNA matches that span multiple countries while still tracing back to shared ancestral origins.

For Sephardic DNA testers, endogamy can cause moderate match inflation and shared DNA segments that are harder to assign to one specific ancestor. You may see matches connected to several branches of your family tree, reflecting centuries of movement and re-connection among Sephardic communities.

Mizrahi DNA and Endogamy

Mizrahi Jewish DNA results are shaped by long-standing Jewish communities in the Middle East, Persia, Central Asia, and parts of North Africa. Many of these communities existed continuously for thousands of years, often remaining distinct from surrounding populations while still interacting with them culturally and economically.

Endogamy in Mizrahi populations often took place within stable, well-established communities. Marriage within the Jewish population preserved religious and cultural identity, resulting in genetic continuity over long periods of time. DNA matches among Mizrahi Jews may show strong regional consistency, with shared ancestry rooted deeply in specific locations.

Because Mizrahi communities sometimes remained in one area for centuries, DNA results may show clearer geographic signals than Ashkenazi results, but still include overlapping matches that reflect shared community ancestry.

How Endogamy Affects Jewish DNA Matches

Across Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi populations, endogamy leads to several common DNA patterns. Test-takers often share many small DNA segments with a large number of people. These segments may come from multiple ancestors rather than one recent shared relative, which makes interpreting matches more complex.

For this reason, total shared DNA is often less meaningful than the size of the largest shared segments. Larger segments are more likely to point to a recent common ancestor, while smaller segments may reflect shared population history.

Why Jewish DNA Is So Distinctive

Endogamy has also made Jewish DNA easier for testing companies to identify. Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jewish ancestry often appears clearly in ethnicity estimates because these populations share long-standing genetic patterns. At the same time, precise regional breakdowns may be less specific, as centuries of shared ancestry blur geographic boundaries.

Endogamy also explains why certain inherited traits and genetic conditions appear more frequently in Jewish populations. This is not the result of close inbreeding, but of small, interconnected communities persisting over long periods of time.

Understanding Your Results with Context

Endogamy can make Jewish DNA research challenging, but it also tells a powerful story. It reflects centuries of resilience, continuity, and community life. Jewish DNA results are not broken or confusing—they are historically accurate.

By understanding how endogamy shaped Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi DNA, researchers and family historians can approach their results with patience and clarity. When combined with historical records, geography, and community history, DNA becomes a meaningful tool for reconnecting with the past.

Start uncovering your family’s story with confidence—this getting started guide shows you exactly where to begin and what to do next.

Preserve Jewish Heritage — Join and Support Our Mission

As technology advances, so does our ability to trace Jewish ancestry across generations and continents. Our nonprofit Jewish genealogy organization in Colorado is dedicated to helping individuals explore, document, and preserve their family stories — stories that might otherwise be lost.

Your membership and donations make this work possible. Together, we can connect families, honor our ancestors, and strengthen our shared heritage.

Join us today or make a tax-deductible contribution to help continue this vital mission of Jewish genealogical discovery.

Jewish genealogy comes with its own unique set of challenges

Border changes, language barriers, name variations, lost records, and the devastating impact of the Holocaust. While many people start their research on their own, there are times when working with a professional genealogy company makes all the difference. Fortunately, several organizations and firms specialize in Jewish genealogy and understand the historical, cultural, and archival nuances that general genealogy services often miss.

Below is an overview of the types of companies and organizations that specialize in Jewish genealogy, what they offer, and how they can help move your research forward.

Professional Jewish Genealogy Research Firms

There are independent genealogy firms whose researchers focus specifically on Jewish family history. These companies often employ genealogists with deep expertise in Eastern European, German, Sephardic, and Middle Eastern Jewish records. They are familiar with Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian, Polish, German, and other languages commonly found in Jewish documents.

These firms typically offer services such as tracing immigrant ancestors, identifying ancestral towns, researching Holocaust-era family members, and locating living relatives. Many also conduct on-site archival research in Europe, Israel, and North America, accessing records that are not available online.

Clients usually receive a written report outlining findings, source citations, historical context, and recommendations for further research. While professional firms can be costly, they are often the best option for brick-wall cases or complex family histories.

Jewish Genealogy Organizations with Research Services

Several nonprofit organizations dedicated to Jewish genealogy also provide research assistance or referrals to trusted professionals. JewishGen, one of the largest Jewish genealogy platforms in the world, does not conduct research for clients but maintains a directory of professional genealogists who specialize in Jewish records.

Local Jewish genealogical societies, often affiliated with the International Association of Jewish Genealogical Societies (IAJGS), may offer paid research services, consultations, or mentoring programs. These societies are especially helpful for regional expertise and understanding community-specific records such as synagogue registers, cemetery records, and landsmanshaftn documents.

Working with a society can be a more affordable option, particularly if your research focuses on a specific city or region.

Holocaust Research and Tracing Services

Some organizations specialize primarily in Holocaust-era research and family tracing. These groups focus on victims, survivors, displaced persons, and refugees, and they work extensively with wartime and postwar records.

Institutions such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Yad Vashem, and the Arolsen Archives provide research services, databases, and inquiry systems that function much like genealogy companies. While many of their services are free, professional researchers affiliated with these institutions can also be hired independently to conduct deeper investigations.

These services are invaluable for families trying to learn the fate of relatives during the Holocaust or reconnect with branches of the family thought to be lost.

DNA-Focused Genealogy Companies

Some genealogy companies specialize in using DNA testing as a primary research tool, particularly for Jewish families. Because Jewish populations tend to be endogamous, interpreting DNA results requires specialized knowledge.

Professional genetic genealogists who work frequently with Ashkenazi, Sephardic, or Mizrahi DNA can help clients understand thousands of distant cousin matches, identify shared ancestral lines, and combine genetic evidence with traditional records. These services are especially helpful for adoptees, people with unknown parentage, or families whose paper trails were destroyed.

Israeli-Based Genealogy Services

Israel is home to several genealogy companies and independent researchers who specialize in Jewish records from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. These researchers often have direct access to Israeli archives, rabbinical court records, immigration files, and survivor documentation.

Israeli-based services are particularly useful when researching aliyah records, Holocaust survivor files, or families who settled in Israel before or after World War II. Their familiarity with Hebrew-language sources and Israeli archival systems can significantly speed up the research process.

What to Look for When Choosing a Company

When selecting a Jewish genealogy company, look for demonstrated experience with Jewish records, clear pricing structures, and transparent research methodologies. Reputable firms will explain what records are likely available, what challenges may arise, and what results are realistic.

It is also helpful to ask whether the researcher belongs to professional organizations, attends Jewish genealogy conferences, or publishes work in the field. These are often signs of a strong commitment to ongoing education and ethical research practices.

Is Hiring a Specialist Worth It?

For many families, the answer is yes. Jewish genealogy often requires navigating fragmented records, multiple migrations, and historical trauma. A company that specializes in Jewish genealogy brings not only technical expertise, but also cultural understanding and sensitivity.

Whether you are just beginning your family history journey or facing a long-standing research mystery, working with a Jewish genealogy specialist can provide clarity, context, and meaningful connections to your past.

Start uncovering your family’s story with confidence—this getting started guide shows you exactly where to begin and what to do next.

Preserve Jewish Heritage — Join and Support Our Mission

As technology advances, so does our ability to trace Jewish ancestry across generations and continents. Our nonprofit Jewish genealogy organization in Colorado is dedicated to helping individuals explore, document, and preserve their family stories — stories that might otherwise be lost.

Your membership and donations make this work possible. Together, we can connect families, honor our ancestors, and strengthen our shared heritage.

Join us today or make a tax-deductible contribution to help continue this vital mission of Jewish genealogical discovery.

One of the most common questions people ask when exploring their family history is simple but deeply personal: which side of my family was Jewish? Sometimes the answer is obvious because traditions were openly passed down. Other times, the clues are faint — a surname, a DNA result, or a family story that was whispered but never fully explained. Tracing Jewish ancestry often requires pulling together small pieces of evidence from records, culture, and genetics to see the full picture.

Start with family stories and traditions

Family memories are often the first place to look. Even if no one explicitly said “this side was Jewish,” hints may appear in unexpected ways. Holiday customs, food traditions, phrases in Yiddish or Hebrew, or stories about immigration from Eastern Europe can all point in a direction. Pay attention to which parent or grandparent these stories connect to. A tradition tied consistently to your mother’s mother, for example, may be an important clue.

It’s also common to find stories about ancestors who “changed their religion,” married outside the faith, or stopped practicing after immigration. These narratives often point to a Jewish line that became less visible over time rather than disappearing entirely.

Understand how Jewish ancestry is traditionally defined

In traditional Jewish law, Jewish identity is passed through the maternal line. This means that if your mother’s mother was Jewish, that identity was considered continuous, regardless of later religious practice. While this definition matters more for religious status than genealogy, it can help guide research. If family stories consistently reference your maternal grandmother or her mother as Jewish, that side of the family deserves closer examination.

At the same time, genealogy is broader than religious definitions. Many people discover Jewish ancestry through their father’s side, especially among Ashkenazi families who migrated to North America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Both sides matter when reconstructing your family’s past.

Look closely at surnames — but don’t rely on them alone

Surnames can offer helpful hints, but they are not definitive proof. Names like Cohen, Levy, Rosenberg, or Goldstein are often associated with Jewish families, yet they were also adopted by non-Jewish families in some regions. Conversely, many Jewish families changed their surnames upon immigration, making them harder to recognize.

The key is context. If a surname appears alongside other indicators — such as immigration from a known Jewish region, synagogue records, or burial in a Jewish cemetery — it becomes far more meaningful.

Use DNA testing to identify Jewish ancestry

DNA testing has become one of the most powerful tools for answering this question. Autosomal DNA tests can identify Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry with a high degree of accuracy. If your results show Jewish ancestry, the next step is determining which parent it came from.

Comparing your results with close relatives is the easiest way to do this. If a parent, aunt, uncle, or cousin has also tested, shared matches can quickly reveal whether the Jewish ancestry comes from your mother’s or father’s side. Even without close relatives, patterns among DNA matches — such as shared surnames or ancestral towns — often point clearly to one branch of the family.

Research vital records and immigration documents

Birth, marriage, and death records frequently contain subtle but revealing details. Look for indicators such as Hebrew names, Yiddish given names, or references to synagogues and rabbis. Marriage records may list parents’ names, which can help you trace Jewish ancestry back another generation.

Immigration and naturalization records are especially valuable. Passenger lists often recorded last residence or hometown, and many Jewish immigrants came from specific regions in Eastern Europe. If one side of your family consistently traces back to places like Galicia, Lithuania, or the Pale of Settlement, that is a strong signal.

Explore cemetery and burial records

Jewish burial traditions are distinctive. Headstones with Hebrew inscriptions, Jewish symbols, or separate Jewish sections within cemeteries can confirm ancestry when other records fall short. Cemetery records often link multiple generations, making it easier to see which branch of the family belonged to the Jewish community.

Follow the paper trail through Jewish-specific records

Once you have a suspected side of the family, turn to Jewish-specific resources. Synagogue membership lists, landsmanshaftn records, community registries, and Holocaust-era documentation can all reinforce your findings. These records are usually organized by family or hometown, helping you connect individuals across generations.

Putting it all together

Figuring out which side of your family was Jewish rarely comes from a single document or test result. It’s a process of layering evidence — stories, records, DNA, and historical context — until a clear pattern emerges. Along the way, you may uncover not just an answer, but a deeper understanding of how your family’s identity evolved over time.

In the end, discovering Jewish ancestry is less about drawing a line on a family tree and more about reconnecting with a story that may have been interrupted, hidden, or forgotten — and giving it a place once again.

If you've taken a DNA test, and you're Jewish, there's a good chance you opened your results, scrolled through your matches, and thought: Why do I have so many 4th–6th cousins? Thousands of them. Sometimes tens of thousands. And very few close relatives in sight.

First, take a deep breath-nothing is wrong with your DNA. As a matter of fact, what you're looking at is one of the most normal outcomes for people of Jewish ancestry.

Why Jewish DNA Tests Look Different

Most major DNA testing companies were built around populations that had relatively recent geographic mixing, whereas Jewish populations, especially Ashkenazi Jews, followed a very different historical path.

The tradition of Jewish communities, for many centuries, was to live in smaller, closer groups, often marrying within their community because of religious tradition, social structure, and-at times-legal restrictions. This pattern, called endogamy, means people married within the same population over many generations.

The result? Today's Jewish testers share DNA with a large number of people who all descend from a relatively small pool of common ancestors.

"4th–6th Cousin" Really Means in Jewish DNA

A 4th or 5th cousin match in a non-endogamous population is most often a single shared ancestor pair from the 1700s or 1800s, but in Jewish DNA it's not quite so simple.

Because of endogamy, you may share DNA with someone through multiple ancestral lines all at once. That match labeled as a “5th cousin” could actually be:

• A true distant cousin
• Related to you in several different ways
• Genetically closer than the label would suggest

In other words, those cousin labels are estimates-and for Jewish testers, they often underestimate how connected you really are.

Founder Effect and Genetic Clustering

The other crucial piece of the puzzle is the founder effect. Most Jewish groups are descended from a small circle of founders. As their descendants multiplied, genetic diversity never really expanded.

This is why Jewish DNA tends to form tight genetic clusters. And when you test, the system picks up overlapping segments of DNA shared across a wide network of people - and voilà, you have thousands of distant cousin matches.

It's not that you have more cousins than anyone else. It is that your cousins are easier to detect.

Why Close Matches Can Be Scarce

So many Jewish families experienced migration, name changes, assimilation, and devastating losses during the Holocaust, all of which disrupted record-keeping and family continuity.

If parents, siblings, or first cousins have not tested-or lines were broken due to history-your match list will naturally skew toward distant relatives.

This can be frustrating-especially if you're hoping DNA will quickly answer family questions. But those distant matches still hold valuable clues.

How to Effectively Use 4th–6th Cousin Matches

The secret to Jewish genetic genealogy isn't chasing the closest cousin - it's spotting patterns.

• Searching for repeated surnames amongst matches
• Pay particular attention to shared ancestral towns
• Group matches by common segments of DNA
• Use specialized Jewish genealogy databases together with DNA.

The more 4th-6th cousins who all point to the same shtetl or region, the closer you're getting towards a real ancestral link.

A Big, Interconnected Family Story

Seeing endless pages of distant cousins feels overwhelming-even impersonal. But there's another way to look at this.

Each one of those matches represents survival, continuity, and shared history. They are living threads of a story that spans centuries, borders, and upheaval. It isn't a glitch in the system that these people are Jewish and have so many 4th–6th cousin matches. This is reflective of a people whose families remained connected—genetically and culturally—against extraordinary odds. And with patience and curiosity, and the right tools, those distant cousins can still lead you home.

How Can I Tell If a Surname Is Jewish?

If you’re researching your family history, you may have paused over a last name and wondered, “Is this a Jewish surname?” You’re not alone. It’s one of the most common questions people ask when they begin exploring Jewish genealogy. The short answer is: sometimes you can tell, but often it takes more than the name itself.

Jewish surnames didn’t develop in one place or at one time. For centuries, Jews were known primarily by given names and patronymics. Permanent surnames were often adopted later, usually because governments required them. That means Jewish surnames can reflect many languages, cultures, and historical pressures — and that complexity is exactly why context matters.

Geography is a great place to start. Ask yourself where the family lived. Ashkenazi Jewish surnames often come from Central and Eastern Europe and may sound German, Polish, Russian, or Yiddish. Sephardic surnames frequently trace back to Spain, Portugal, North Africa, or the Ottoman Empire and may sound Spanish or Portuguese. Knowing a location can instantly make a surname more meaningful.

Some surnames are closely associated with Jewish religious roles. Names like Cohen, Kohn, Kagan, or Katz are traditionally linked to the Kohanim, the hereditary priestly class. Likewise, surnames such as Levi, Levine, or Lewin may indicate descent from the Levites. These names are strong clues, but they are not guarantees. Over time, some non-Jewish families adopted them as well.

Many Jewish surnames are occupational or descriptive. In the 18th and 19th centuries, officials often assigned surnames based on jobs, physical traits, or everyday objects. Some families received beautiful-sounding names, while others were given less flattering ones. Because these names were often assigned rather than chosen, they can look ordinary and overlap with non-Jewish surnames.

Language can also offer hints. Surnames derived from Hebrew given names or containing Hebrew or Yiddish elements may point toward Jewish origins. But spelling changes are extremely common. Immigration, translation, and assimilation all played a role in reshaping names. A surname that looks completely non-Jewish today may have had a very different form a few generations ago.

It’s also important to remember that names change intentionally. Families sometimes altered surnames to fit in, avoid discrimination, or simply make life easier in a new country. As a result, the absence of an obviously Jewish surname does not mean the absence of Jewish ancestry.

In the end, a surname is a clue — not a conclusion. The real answers come from combining name research with historical records such as census data, immigration documents, synagogue records, burial information, and DNA matches. When you put those pieces together, surnames become more than labels. They become doorways into your family’s Jewish story.

Preserve Jewish Heritage — Join and Support Our Mission

As technology advances, so does our ability to trace Jewish ancestry across generations and continents. Our nonprofit Jewish genealogy organization in Colorado is dedicated to helping individuals explore, document, and preserve their family stories — stories that might otherwise be lost.

Your membership and donations make this work possible. Together, we can connect families, honor our ancestors, and strengthen our shared heritage.

Join us today or make a tax-deductible contribution to help continue this vital mission of Jewish genealogical discovery.

Journey Through Digital Time: Accessing Online Archives in Poland, Ukraine & Lithuania

Historical research often begins with a simple artifact — a postcard, photograph, or certificate — that sparks curiosity about the people behind the names. Exploring online archives from Poland, Ukraine, and Lithuania can reveal not just dates and locations, but the rich stories of ancestors’ lives. This guide will explain how to access these digital resources and make the most of them in a human-centered, narrative way.

Poland: Discovering Stories on “Szukaj w Archiwach”

Poland offers a wealth of digital resources through Szukaj w Archiwach (“Search the Archives”), a portal maintained by the Polish State Archives. It provides access to parish registers, civil records, maps, photos, and other historical documents. The portal’s search functionality allows filtering by document type, region, and date range, making it easier to locate specific records. Search Polish State Archives

The portal is complemented by other digital collections such as Polona, which includes books, periodicals, and manuscripts that provide context to historical research. Researchers can create accounts to save searches and build personal collections of archival materials. Search Polona

A practical tip for Polish research is to try multiple spellings of names and towns, including historical variations and diacritics, as archival materials often use older or regional forms. ([archiwa.gov.pl](https://archiwa.gov.pl/en/search-in-archives/genealogy/?utm_source=chatgpt.com))

Ukraine: Regional Archives and Smart Searching Strategies

Ukraine’s archival system is more decentralized, with many regional archives maintaining their own online catalogs or PDF inventories. The State Archival Service of Ukraine provides information about digitization projects and services, helping researchers navigate the regional landscape.

Knowing both the modern and historical names of towns is essential for effective searching. Using variations in Ukrainian, Russian, or Polish can reveal records that might otherwise remain hidden. Contacting archives via email with precise details often allows access to scanned documents or guidance for requesting copies. 

Church registers, or metrical books, provide records of births, marriages, and deaths. These documents bring historical communities to life, giving insight into family structures, naming patterns, and social networks of the past. 

Lithuania: Exploring EAIS and the Human Stories Behind Records

Lithuania offers digital access through the Electronic Archives Information System (EAIS) and the Lithuanian State Historical Archives (LVIA). These archives include parish books, census lists, land documents, and other historical materials. Downloadable indexes make it easier to locate specific records and request scans when needed. 

Specialized databases such as the JewishGen Lithuania Database aggregate records of Jewish communities, allowing researchers to trace families across towns and generations. FamilySearch also hosts Lithuanian collections accessible with a free account. 

Tips for Making the Archive Experience Personal

Accessing historical records is not only about gathering documents; it is about connecting with the lives behind them. Practical strategies include:

• Embrace the language challenge: Browser translations and dictionaries help navigate non-English interfaces and understand archival descriptions.
• Try multiple spellings: Historical documents often use alternate forms of names and towns. Testing variations can reveal additional records.
• Index first, view later: Download indexes and PDFs before accessing scans. This approach helps focus the search and prevents unnecessary delays.
• Join online communities: Genealogy forums, social media groups, and Reddit threads are valuable sources of tips and practical advice.
• Patience is key: Some archives respond quickly, while others take time. Each document retrieved is a step closer to understanding the past.

Conclusion: Connecting with History

Online archives from Poland, Ukraine, and Lithuania open doors to the past, allowing researchers to uncover names, dates, and stories that breathe life into history. Each record is more than a piece of paper — it represents the experiences, challenges, and achievements of individuals and communities. Approaching archival research with curiosity, patience, and respect transforms a list of documents into a meaningful journey through time. By exploring these digital resources, the histories of ancestors and communities become vivid, creating a lasting connection with the past.

How to Find Jewish Military Records from World War I and World War II

For many Jewish families, military service during World War I and World War II is a powerful but often under-documented chapter of their family story. Jewish men — and later women — served in armies across Europe, the United States, the British Empire, and beyond. Some survived and returned home. Others perished in battle, in captivity, or later during the Holocaust. Tracing these records can feel overwhelming, but with the right approach and resources, you can uncover remarkable details about your ancestor’s service.

Start with What You Know

Before diving into archives, gather everything already in your family’s possession. Look for draft cards, discharge papers, military medals, photographs in uniform, passports, letters, or even oral histories passed down through generations. Pay close attention to names, dates of birth, places of residence, and any mention of a regiment, unit, or military branch. Jewish soldiers often served under localized or transliterated names, so note spelling variations.

Knowing which country your ancestor lived in at the time of the war is crucial. Borders shifted dramatically after both wars, and a town that was Austrian in 1914 may have been Polish or Ukrainian by 1930.

World War I Military Records

World War I records can be challenging, but they are far from impossible to find. Many Jewish soldiers served in the armies of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and the United States.

For U.S. soldiers, start with World War I draft registration cards. These records often include birth dates, occupations, addresses, and next of kin. They do not confirm service but provide vital context.

European WWI records are often held in national or regional archives. Countries like Germany and Austria maintain regimental rosters, casualty lists, and pension files. Jewish soldiers may also appear in pre-war census records that later connect to military service.

A lesser-known resource is Jewish community memorial books (Yizkor books), which sometimes list local men who served and died in World War I — even decades before the Holocaust.

World War II Military Records

World War II generated far more documentation, but Jewish military service is often fragmented due to displacement, persecution, and name changes.

If your ancestor served in the U.S. military, look for draft cards, enlistment records, unit histories, and burial records. Keep in mind that many U.S. Army personnel files were destroyed in the 1973 National Personnel Records Center fire, but alternate records such as morning reports and payrolls can help reconstruct service.

For British and Commonwealth forces, service records, medal cards, and casualty lists are key. Jewish refugees who escaped Europe often enlisted in the British Army or auxiliary units.

In Europe, Jewish men served in Polish, Soviet, French, and other national forces. Some later joined partisan units or resistance movements. These records may be found in military archives, Holocaust research institutions, and survivor testimony collections.

Holocaust-Era Overlap

For Jewish soldiers, military service and Holocaust history frequently intersect. Some veterans were later deported, imprisoned as prisoners of war, or targeted due to their Jewish identity.

Institutions such as Yad Vashem and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum hold collections that include military service references, POW records, and post-war testimonies. A soldier’s military background may appear indirectly in transport lists, camp records, or survivor questionnaires.

Name Challenges and Language Barriers

One of the biggest obstacles in Jewish military research is names. Jewish soldiers often used Yiddish, Hebrew, Russian, German, or Anglicized versions of their names depending on the country and period. A single individual may appear under several spellings across different records.

When searching, try multiple variations and be flexible with dates. Learning basic military terms in the relevant language can dramatically improve search results.

Photographs, Medals, and Unit Histories

Do not underestimate the power of context. Even if you cannot find a full service file, regimental histories, unit war diaries, and battlefield maps can help you understand where your ancestor served and what they experienced.

Photographs with insignia or medals can often be identified with the help of military historians or online forums dedicated to uniform identification.

Be Patient — and Persistent

Finding Jewish military records from World War I and World War II is rarely a one-step process. It often requires piecing together clues from civilian records, community sources, and multiple archives across different countries.

But when you succeed, the reward is profound. Military records do more than list dates and ranks — they restore agency, courage, and humanity to ancestors whose lives were shaped by the most turbulent events of the twentieth century.

With patience and persistence, you may uncover not just a soldier’s service, but a powerful chapter of Jewish resilience and survival.

Researching family members affected by the Holocaust can be emotionally heavy and logistically confusing.

If you’ve heard that the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) holds records that might help — you’re absolutely right. The museum is one of the world’s most important repositories of Holocaust-era documentation, and many of its records are accessible to the public if you know where to look.

This guide walks you through how to find and request records from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, what kinds of documents are available, and how to make the most of your search.

What Records Does the USHMM Hold?

The USHMM has collected millions of documents from archives across Europe and beyond. These records were gathered to preserve evidence of Nazi persecution and to help families trace what happened to loved ones.

You may find:

• Concentration and labor camp records
• Ghetto documentation and census lists
• Displaced Persons (DP) camp records
• Transport and deportation lists
• Postwar registration cards
• Testimonies and survivor questionnaires
• Nazi-era identification documents

Not every victim appears in surviving records, but even partial information can provide crucial clues and context.

Start with the Holocaust Survivors and Victims Database

Your first stop should be the Holocaust Survivors and Victims Database on the USHMM website. This searchable database brings together names from many different collections into one place.

When searching, try:

• Multiple spellings of surnames
• Using only a first or last name
• Searching by town of origin
• Removing accents or diacritical marks

Search results often link to specific archival collections. Even if you don’t immediately recognize a document, note the collection name — it can guide further research.

Explore the Museum’s Archival Collections

The USHMM archives contain thousands of collections acquired from institutions worldwide. Many collection descriptions are available online, and some materials are digitized.

Look for:

• Finding aids that describe what each collection contains
• Notes on which materials are available online
• References to original European archives

If a record is not digitized, don’t assume it’s unreachable. Many materials can be accessed through a research request.

Submitting a Research Request

If you’re unable to locate records on your own, you can submit a research inquiry directly to the museum. The USHMM has a dedicated reference staff experienced in Holocaust-era documentation.

When submitting a request, include:

• Full name of the person you’re researching
• Approximate birth year
• Place of birth or residence
• Known camps, ghettos, or wartime locations
• Any alternate spellings or aliases

The more context you provide, the better the chances of a meaningful result. Responses may take time, so patience is important.

On-Site Research at the Museum

If you are able to visit Washington, D.C., the USHMM offers on-site access to additional archival materials. Some collections can only be viewed in person due to copyright or preservation restrictions.

Before visiting:

• Search the online catalogs to identify relevant collections
• Request materials in advance when possible
• Bring photo ID and be prepared to follow archive rules

Archivists on site can help guide you, explain documents, and suggest related collections.

Understanding What You Find

Holocaust-era records can be fragmented, bureaucratic, and difficult to interpret. Dates may conflict, names may be misspelled, and details may be incomplete. This is normal.

Think of each document as a puzzle piece rather than a complete story. One transport list, registration card, or DP record can open doors to additional archives and resources.

A Final Word

Searching the records of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is more than a research task — it is an act of remembrance. Whether you uncover extensive documentation or only a single line in a ledger, that record helps ensure a life is not forgotten.

Take breaks when you need them, document what you find, and remember that every discovery, no matter how small, matters.